Evaluation of the effect of therapeutic durations on small ruminant bacterial pneumonia.

BACKGROUND: Sheep and goat production in Ethiopia is hindered by numerous substandard production systems and various diseases. Respiratory disease complexes (RDC) pose a significant threat to the productivity of these animals. Pneumonia is a common manifestation of respiratory disease complexes and often necessitates a prolonged course of antibiotic treatment. This study aimed to optimize and propose the ideal duration of therapy for pneumonia in sheep and goats. METHODS: The study was conducted from February to June 2021 at the Veterinary Teaching Hospital of the College of Veterinary Medicine and Agriculture, Addis Ababa University. The study recruited 54 sheep and goats presented to the hospital for treatment with a confirmed RDC as determined based on clinical signs and bacteriological methods. The animals were randomly allocated to 5 groups each group receiving 10% oxytetracycline (Phenxyl, Phenix, Belgum) intramuscularly for a duration of 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 consecutive days. The treatment outcomes were assessed by recording vital signs (body temperature, respiratory rate, heart rate, coughing, and nasal discharges), performing lung ultrasonography (L-USG) as well as collection of nasal swabs for bacterial isolation and molecular identification before and after completion of the treatment. An ordered logistic regression model with random effects was employed to determine the optimal therapeutic duration, taking into account the cumulative scores of the outcome variables across the different groups. RESULTS: Among the 54 sheep and goats treated with 10% oxytetracycline, a total of 74.07% (95% CI, 60.35-85.04) achieved complete recovery, as confirmed through clinical, ultrasound, and bacteriological methods. In Group 1 (G1), out of 12 sheep and goats, 8 (83.0%) recovered completely; in Group 2 (G2), out of 11 animals, 9 (82.0%) recovered completely; in Group 3 (G3), out of 11 animals, 10 (93.0%) recovered completely; in Group 4 (G4), out of 9 animals, 9 (100.0%) recovered completely; and in Group 5 (G5), out of 11 animals, 10 (91.0%) recovered completely. Bacteriological examination of nasal swabs indicated involvement of M. hemolytica in 27 (50.00%) and P. multocida in 13 (24.07%) of pneumonic animals. Detection of specific marker genes confirmed only five of the presumptive M. hemolytica isolates, whilst no isolates tested positive for P. multocida. Post-treatment samples collected from recovered animals did not yield any M. hemolytica nor P. multocida. Based on results from clinical signs, L-USG, and bacterial infection variables, the group of sheep and goats treated for seven consecutive days (G5) showed the highest recovery score compared to the other groups, and there was a statistically significant difference (coefficient (ß) = - 2.296, p = 0.021) in variable score between G5 and G1. These findings suggest that the administration of 10% oxytetracycline for a full course of seven consecutive days resulted in symptomatic and clinical recovery rates from respiratory disease in sheep and goats.

Multidrug-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Strains Thrive in Dairy and Beef Production, Processing, and Supply Lines in Five Geographical Areas in Ethiopia.

Livestock, farms, abattoirs, and food supply systems can become the source of foodborne pathogens, including S. aureus, in the absence of monitoring, general hygienic practices, and control. Studies are scarce on reservoirs (hiding places) and routes of entry of S. aureus into the food supply chain in Ethiopia. To fill these gaps, we evaluated the role of cows (milk), meat, equipment, and food handlers on the abundance and AMR of S. aureus in five geographical areas in central Oromia, Ethiopia. We isolated S. aureus from 10 different ecologies per area in 5 areas and tested their sensitivity to 14 antimicrobials of 9 different classes. We ranked the 5 areas and 10 ecologies by computing their multiple AMR index (MARI) at a cut-off value of 0.2 to determine 'high-risk' ecologies for AMR. We recorded as MDR if an isolate had resistance to ≥3 antimicrobial classes. We used a circos diagram to analyze if isolates with identical AMR patterns were shared between different ecologies. S. aureus is prevalent in central Oromia (16.1-18.3%), higher in dairy farms than in abattoirs, and varied among 10 ecologies (p < 0.001) but not among 5 areas (p > 0.05). Of the 92 isolates, 94.6% were penicillin-resistant. Their AMR prevalence was above 40% for 9 of 14 antimicrobials. All isolates (100%) had AMR in at least one antimicrobial class (range = 1-9; median = 5), indicating MDR was prevalent. The prevalence of MDR S. aureus varied (p < 0.05) among areas and 10 ecologies; the highest was in slaughter lines. All isolates had a MARI of >0.2, indicating drug overuse, and S. aureus's AMR burden is high in central Oromia. Dairy farms had higher MARI values (0.44) than abattoirs (0.39). Of 10 ecologies, the highest and lowest MARI values were in the beef supply chain, i.e., slaughter line (0.67) and butcher's hand (0.25). Of the 68 different AMR patterns by 92 isolates against 14 antimicrobials, 53 patterns (77.9%) were unique to individual isolates, indicating they were phenotypically dissimilar. MDR S. aureus was widespread in central Oromia in dairy and meat supply chains, contaminating milk, meat, equipment, and workers in farm and abattoir settings. In the absence of strict regulations and interventions, MDR S. aureus can be disseminated from these epicenters to the public.

Identification of serotypes of Mannheimia haemolytica and Pasteurella multocida from pneumonic cases of sheep and goats and their antimicrobial sensitivity profiles in Borana and Arsi zones, Ethiopia.

Respiratory diseases caused by Mannheimia haemolytica (M. haemolytica) and Pasteurella multocida (P. multocida) have been known to result in a considerable loss due to mortality and reduced production. This study aimed at isolation and identification of M. haemolytica and P. multocida associated with pneumonic pasteurellosis in sheep and goats using bacteriological and molecular techniques. Identification of serotypes of M. haemolytica and P. multocida was done using indirect haemagglutination test. The in vitro antimicrobial sensitivity profiles of the M. haemolytica were tested using standard disk diffusion method. A total of 52 and 78 nasal swabs were collected from pneumonic cases for bacterial isolation and identification in Borana and Arsi zone, respectively. Four hundred sera samples were collected for identification of serotypes. The results showed that 17 of 52 (32.69%; 95% CI 20.33, 47.11) nasal swabs collected from pneumonic animals in Borana yielded positive results for Pasteurella/Mannheimia species, 13 (25.00%; 95% CI 14.03, 38.95) of which were M. haemolytica. None of the samples yielded P. multocida. Twenty-three of 78 (29.49%; 95% CI 19.69, 40.89) nasal swabs collected at Arsi from pneumonic animals yielded positive results for M. haemolytica (17) and P. multocida (6). Secondary biochemical characterization revealed that 14 of the 17 isolates conform to M. haemolytica whereas none of the 6 isolates suspected to be P. mutocida were confirmed. Eleven (84.62%) isolates from Borana and 4 (28.57%) from Arsi were confirmed to be M. haemolytica using PCR targeting the Rpt2 genes. Assay for M. haemolytica serotype A1 revealed all belong to A1. None of the isolates with cultural and morphological features of P. multocida gave positive results by molecular assay. Serological assay identified three serotypes of M. haemolytica namely A1, A2 and A7 almost in all of the samples whereas P. multocida serotype A was detected in 78.75% of the samples. The M. haemolytica isolates tested for susceptibility to antibiotics showed resistance against Bacitracin (83.33%) and Penicillin (50.00%) while they were found susceptible to Gentamycin (100%), Chloramphenicol (100%) and Sulfamethoxazole (100%) and Tetracycline (83.33%). In conclusion, the results of the present study revealed the association of M. haemolytica with pneumonic pasteurellosis in sheep and goats and can be of use in vaccine development in Ethiopia. Nevertheless, further investigations and continuous monitoring of antimicrobial resistance and appropriate selection and prudent use of antimicrobials in livestock sector are required.

In vitro Efficacy Evaluation of Leading Brands of Ciprofloxacin Tablets Found in Bishoftu City Against Salmonella Isolates, Central Ethiopia.

Purpose: Salmonella Enteritidis (SE) and Salmonella Typhimurium (STM) are the serovars most frequently associated with human illness. Ciprofloxacin is most widely used to manage cases in adults. The present study aimed to evaluate the in vitro antibacterial activity of leading brands of ciprofloxacin (tablets) marketed in Bishoftu city against SE and STM serovars, and field isolates of Salmonella (non-serotyped) from dairy milk in central Ethiopia. Methods: Five most widely prescribed ciprofloxacin brands (A-E) were subjected to in vitro efficacy evaluation against Salmonella isolates by using the disc diffusion method. The zone of inhibition (ZI) of the tested brands was compared with the standard disc and interpreted as susceptible, intermediate, and resistant. Results: Out of 27 replicates (SE, STM, and field Salmonella isolates each = 9) tested for efficacy, the result revealed the mean ZI of the brands varies for all tested isolates (p < 0.05). The highest mean was recorded for Brand E (24.7±0.71, 24.3±0.50, and 19.5±2.69) and lowest for Brand A (22.0±0.87, 21.0±0.87, and 10.7±1.4) for field Salmonella isolates, STM and SE, respectively. All SE were resistant to four brands (Brand A-D) whereas 67% and 33% of them were resistant and intermediate to Brand E, respectively. Similarly, 33% of STM were resistant to Brand A while all the STM were intermediate to other brands. Furthermore, all non-serotyped field isolates of Salmonella were intermediate to all five tested ciprofloxacin brands with variable ranges of mean of ZI (p<0.05). Conclusion: The study revealed that Brand E was found to have relatively better efficacy against SE than other brands. The current study warrants a need for periodic surveillance of both the quality and efficacy of antibiotics to improve patient well-being and minimize the risk of antimicrobial resistance.

Efficacy of Penicillin-Streptomycin Brands against Staphylococcus aureus: Concordance between Veterinary Clinicians' Perception and the Realities.

Antibiotics must be safe and effective for use in both human and veterinary medicine. However, information about the efficacy of different brands of antibiotics commonly used in veterinary practices is lacking in Ethiopia. In this study, we determined the efficacy of three brands of penicillin-streptomycin (Pen&strep, Penstrep, and Pro&strep) by performing antimicrobial susceptibility testing against Staphylococcus aureus isolated from cow milk from dairy farms in the towns of Sebata and Bishoftu, Central Ethiopia. We also assessed the knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) of veterinarians regarding the quality and use of brand antibiotics and the antibiotic utilization practices of dairy farm personnel using a structured questionnaire. Of 43 S. aureus isolated and tested, 33 (77%), 10 (23%), and 1 (2%) were susceptible to brands A, B, and C, respectively. According to the respondents, all of them reported that penstrep is the most prescribed antibiotic in dairy farms (100%), followed by oxytetracycline (78%) and sulfa drugs (52%). All veterinarians perceived that antibiotics imported from Western countries have a higher efficacy than those from Eastern countries, and they preferred brand A to the other brands, witnessing its better clinical outcome. The majority (87%) and a little more than half (53%) of the respondents perceived the overuse of antibiotics in veterinary clinics and dairy farms, respectively. Our study revealed the better efficacy of brand A against S. aureus compared to the other brands. Interestingly, the veterinarians' perception of and preference toward the use of brand antibiotics agreed with the findings of our antibacterial susceptibility testing. The prudent use of brand A is critically important for sustaining effective treatment, avoiding the risk of antimicrobial resistance, and helping to address animal welfare issues.

Antimicrobial Resistance of Staphylococci at Animal Human Interface in Smallholders and Dairy Farms in Central Oromia, Ethiopia.

Purpose: Staphylococcus species come from a variety of sources and can contaminate milk during milking, cause mastitis and other diseases in animals and humans. The enterotoxins they produce cause food poisoning. Our objectives were to isolate, biochemically characterize, and determine antimicrobial susceptibility profiles of Staphylococcus species from dairy farms in central Oromia, Ethiopia. Methods: A total of 339 samples (n = 135 [raw milk], n = 135 [udders' swabs], n = 25 [milkers' hands swabs], n = 44 [pooled milking utensils' swabs]) were collected from smallholders and dairy farms. Bacteriological culture and biochemical tests were performed to isolate and identify Staphylococcus species, and the Kirby Bauer disk diffusion method was used for antimicrobial susceptibility testing. Results: Across all sample types and dairy farms, 247 (72.9%) Staphylococcus isolates were obtained which comprised of 101 (74.8%) isolates from raw milk, 98 (72.6%) from udder swabs, 30 (68.2%) from pooled utensil swabs, and 18 (72%) from milkers' hand swabs. Fifty coagulase-positive Staphylococcus isolates (20 S. aureus, 20 S. hyicus and 10 S. intermedius) subjected to antimicrobial susceptibility tests have shown various degrees of resistance. All S. aureus isolates were 100% resistant to ampicillin and penicillin. Out of 20 S. hyicus isolates, 90% were resistant to ampicillin and 85% to penicillin. S. intermedius isolates (n=10) were 70% resistant to nalidixic acid and penicillin whilst remaining 100% resistant to ampicillin. Five S. aureus, three S. intermedius and two S. hyicus isolates from raw milk, milk utensil swabs and milkers' hand swabs were multidrug-resistant (resistance to at least three classes of antimicrobials). Conclusion: This study revealed a high prevalence of staphylococci in the dairy cattle, milkers and milking utensils with multidrug-resistant coagulase-positive Staphylococcus species suggesting the significance of pasteurization. Further research is encouraged on the factors leading to antibiotic resistance in Staphylococcus species.

Detection and Antimicrobial Resistance of Staphylococcus Species from Chicken, Chicken Litter, and Humans in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

Background: In veterinary medicine, three Staphylococcus species are of particular importance as primary causes of specific diseases; S. aureus (mastitis in ruminants, equine botryomycosis, and bumble foot in poultry), S. hycus (porcine exudative epidermitis), and S. intermedius (canine pyoderma). The disease conditions caused by Staphylococcus in poultry vary with site, route, and predisposing factors include wounds as a result of fighting/cannibalism, immunosuppression based on virus infection or parasite infestation, and bad husbandry conditions (overcrowding). The objectives of this study were to isolate and identify Staphylococcus spp from chicken and chicken litter and personnel at chicken farm and to determine the antimicrobial susceptibility profile of the isolates. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted on apparently healthy chickens, farm personnel, and chicken litter at poultry farms in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. A total of 222 samples consisting of 101 cloacal swabs, 90 tracheal swabs, 17 pooled litter swabs, 7 nasal swabs, and 7 pooled hand and boot swabs were collected from six farms and examined for the presence of Staphylococcus species. Antimicrobial resistance against 10 antimicrobial agents was also conducted following recommended standard procedures. Results: Overall proportion of Staphylococcus was 64/222 (28.83%). Of the isolates, 40/64 (62.5%), 11/64 (17.2%), 3/64 (4.7%), and 10/64 (15.6%), were S. aureus, S. hycus, S. intermedius, and coagulase-negative staphylococci (CNS), respectively. Only one isolate of S. aureus was susceptible to all antimicrobials tested. Of the 10 antibiotics tested, the isolates demonstrated highest resistance against Penicillin G (96.9%) followed by Tetracycline (78.1%), and Amoxicillin and Erythromycin at the same level (65.6%). Conversely, the isolates were highly susceptible to Ciprofloxacin (95.3%) followed by Sulphamethoxazole-trimethoprim (85.9%). Out of 64 isolates, 61/64 (95.3%) were resistant to three or more antimicrobials tested. Of the isolates, 38/40 (95%) S. aureus, 10/11 (90.9%) S. hycus, 3/3 (100%) S. intermedius, and 10/10 (100%) CNS showed multidrug resistance. Conclusion: This study showed a considerable proportion of Staphylococcus spp in chicken litter and farm workers with a potential source of resistant Staphylococcus species, and more importantly multidrug resistance strains. Further studies on molecular characterization of the isolates will be essential to identify the resistant genes and establish epidemiological links in the transmission dynamics of resistant Staphylococcus species between poultry and humans.

Comparative Immunogenicity Evaluation of Two Infectious Bursal Disease Vaccines Commonly Used in Broiler Chickens in Ethiopia.

PURPOSE: Infectious bursal disease (IBD) is one of the most endemic diseases of commercial poultry in Ethiopia. Vaccination is used as the major means of IBD prevention and control. A study was conducted to compare the immunogenicity of two commercially available IBD vaccines in broiler chicken with maternally derived antibody (MDA). METHODS: A total of 270 day-one-old chicks were randomly assigned to three groups, group 1 vaccinated with product A vaccine at the age of 7 and 19 days and group 2 with product B vaccine on day 15 and 22 while group 3 were kept as control. Six chickens were also randomly selected and bled on day 1 for differential leukocyte count (DLC) and determination of MDA. Representative chickens from each group were bled at 24th and 42nd days of age for antibody titration using the indirect ELISA test. DLC scores were determined in the 1st and 24th days. RESULTS: The result revealed highly significant differences (P = 0.001) between group 1 and group 2 in DLC at 24th days of age. Antibody titers against IBD were differed significantly (P = 0.02) at 24th and 42nd days of age in broilers vaccinated with product A and product B vaccines. CONCLUSION: Both vaccines have induced an adequate immunological response at the end of the experiment; however, product A has shown significantly higher antibody titers against the IBDV and DLC than product B.

Veterinary Drug Prescribing Practices at Selected District Veterinary Clinics of Rift Valley Areas of Ethiopia.

The rational use of drugs in veterinary medicine has various significances, such as reducing the risk of drug resistance, increasing efficacy, reducing drug residue, and decreasing adverse drug reactions. A retrospective study was conducted to assess veterinary drug prescribing practices at Batu and Arsi-Negelle district veterinary clinics in the rift valley areas of Ethiopia. A total of 2,464 cases were recorded from the case registration books at both the clinics for diseases treated between September 2012 and February 2015. The study results showed that for a total of 2,464 cases diagnosed at both clinics, 3,811 different drugs were prescribed, with an average per encounter of 1.6. Among the total drugs, oxytetracycline, ivermectin, penstrep, sulfa drugs, and albendazole were the most leading prescribed drugs with a frequency of 43.0%, 17.6%, 10.2%, 6.5%, and 1.3%, respectively. All drugs were prescribed by the generic name without any laboratory support of the disease. About 68.3% of the cases were diagnosed by unspecified professionals, whereas 21.7% and 10.1% were done by animal health assistants and veterinarians, respectively. The prescribing practices showed 61.0% of antibiotics and 29.7% of anthelmintics where 45.3% and 54.7% of antibiotics and 17.8% and 82.2% of anthelmintics were given at Batu and Arsi-Negelle veterinary clinics, respectively. Of the prescribed drugs, 4.6% oxytetracycline and 2.6% penstrep were prescribed irrationally to treat diseases that were tentatively diagnosed as parasitic cases. Similarly, 40.5% ivermectin and 17.7% albendazole were prescribed for bacterial infections. In conclusion, this study revealed problems in antibiotics and anthelmintics use, description of routes of administration and length of treatment, and shortage of laboratory diagnostic facilities. Therefore, veterinary drugs, particularly antibiotics and anthelmintics, should be used appropriately to safeguard the public from residual drug impacts and resistance development.

Antitrypanosomal activity of hydromethanol extract of leaves of Cymbopogon citratus and seeds of Lepidium sativum: in-vivo mice model.

BACKGROUND: Trypanosomiasis is one of the neglected tropical diseases of both humans and animals which decreases their productivity and causes death in the worst scenario. Unavailability of vaccines, the low therapeutic index of trypanocidal drugs, and the development of resistance lead to the need for research focused on developing alternative treatment options especially from medicinal plants. The present study was aimed to investigate antitrypanosomal activities of leaves of Cymbopogon citratus and seeds of Lepidium sativum in in-vivo mice model. METHODS: The plant extracts were prepared by maceration using 80% methanol and reconstituted with 10% dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) to have the desired concentration. The test doses were adjusted to 100, 200 and 400 mg/kg based on the toxicity profile. The plants extracts were administered to the respective groups of mice after the 12th day of field isolate T. congolense inoculation for seven consecutive days. The level of parasitemia, bodyweight, packed cell volume (PCV), and differential white blood cell counts were measured. RESULTS: The in -vivo test results revealed that both plant extracts had dose-dependent antitrypanosomal activity. Both crude extracts showed a significant reduction in parasite load (P < 0.05), increased or prevent the fall of PCV value (P < 0.05), decreased lymphocytosis and increased neutrophil counts (p < 0.05) and improved bodyweight but significant bodyweight increment (P < 0.05) was observed only in C. citratus treated mice compared to the negative and positive controls. CONCLUSION: The present study concluded that the crude extracts of leaves of C. citratus and seeds of L. sativum had antitrypanosomal effects. Both plants extracts reduced parasitemia level, prevented anemia and improved bodyweight of treated mice. Comparative results from all tested parameters showed that the best activities were observed with C. citratus treated groups of mice.

Antibacterial and Antifungal Activities of Ethiopian Medicinal Plants: A Systematic Review.

Background: Podoconiosis and lymphatic filariasis are the most common causes of lower limb lymphoedema in the tropics. Many sufferers experience frequent painful episodes of acute bacterial infection. Plant based traditional medicines are used to treat infections in many countries and are culturally established in Ethiopia. Ethiopian medicinal plants found to have antibacterial and antifungal activities were reviewed with the aim of increasing information about the treatment of wound infections in patients with lymphoedema. Methods: This study collates data from published articles on medicinal plants with antibacterial and antifungal activities in Ethiopia. A systematic search of Scopus, EMBASE, PUBMED/MEDLINE and Google Scholar was undertaken. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysis (PRISMA) guidelines were followed. The protocol was registered on PROSPERO with registration number CRD42019127471. All controlled studies of in vitro antibacterial and antifungal activities were considered. All articles containing the descriptors published until June 28, 2019 were included. The outcome was measured as percent inhibition of microbial growth. For quality assessment of individual in vitro studies, OECD guidelines and the WHO-Good Laboratory Practice (GLP) handbook were used. Results: Seventy-nine studies met the inclusion criteria. A total of 150 plant species and three compounds had been tested against 42 species of bacteria, while 43 plant species had been tested against 22 species of fungus. Conclusion: Materials derived from several Ethiopian medicinal plants have been shown to have promising activity against a variety of bacteria and fungi. Those derived from Azadiractha indica A. Juss. and Lawsonia inerms L. are the most extensively studied against a wide range of gram-negative and positive bacteria, and fungal species.

Systematic review of Ethiopian medicinal plants used for their anti-inflammatory and wound healing activities.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Plant materials are used worldwide as complementary and alternative therapeutics for the treatment of various illnesses. In Ethiopia, folk medicines are utilized across a wide range of cultures and settings. Ethiopia has numerous plant species of which around 12% are endemic, making it a rich source of medicinal plants that are potentially important for human wellbeing. AIM OF THE STUDY: The aim of this study was to assess Ethiopian medicinal plants with anti-inflammatory or wound healing activities, in an attempt to compile the information required for further investigation of their potential role in the management of lymphoedema. METHODS: A systematic review protocol was developed according to the preferred reporting items for systematic review and meta-analysis protocols (PRISMA-P) statement. The protocol for this review was registered on PROSPERO with registration number CRD42019127471. This review considers all controlled in vivo and in vitro anti-inflammatory and wound healing studies evaluating the efficacy and safety of Ethiopian medicinal plants. The search strategy included all articles containing descriptors such as Ethiopia, medicinal plants, herbal products, care, management, lymphoedema, lymphedema, swelling, podoconiosis, elephantiasis, wound, wound healing, inflammation, an anti-inflammatory that were published until June 28, 2019. Outcomes were measured as the percentage of inflammatory and pro-inflammatory cell inhibition, as the percentage of carrageenan-induced oedema (anti-inflammation) inhibition, and the percentage of cell migration and proliferation (wound healing). For quality assessment of individual animal studies, the Risk of Bias tool for animal intervention studies (SYRCLE's RoB tool) criteria were used. For quality assessment of individual in vitro studies, the OECD guidelines and the WHO Good Laboratory Practice (GLP) handbook were used. RESULTS: A total of 46 articles on anti-inflammatory and 17 articles on wound healing properties were reviewed. For the in vivo studies, Swiss albino mice and Wistar rats were used, and the concentration of plant extracts or fractions administered to the lab animals varied considerably. Acetone extract of Vernonia amygdalina showed the fastest anti-inflammatory activity at lower concentrations in carrageenan-induced paw oedema. CONCLUSION: Lawsonia inermis, Azadirachta indica, Achyranthes aspera, and Cuminum cyminum are the most studied plant species in terms of anti-inflammatory activity, while Lawsonia inermis and Azadirachta indica are the most studied ones for wound healing. The most common in vivo techniques used for the anti-inflammatory and the wound healing assays were carrageenan-induced paw oedema, and excision and incision wound models, respectively.

Distribution and antimicrobial resistance profile of coagulase-negative staphylococci from cattle, equipment, and personnel on dairy farm and abattoir settings.

BACKGROUND: Safe food is central to social wellbeing. Coagulase-negative staphylococci (CNS) are a threat to food safety because they may harbor multiple enterotoxins and antimicrobial resistance (AMR) genes. CNS bacteria are an emerging nosocomial pathogen in public health. CNS also cause bovine mastitis with a significant economic loss in the dairy industry and may introduce toxins to the food supply chain resulting in foodborne illnesses. However, information on CNS and their AMR status are scarce in food animal production and processing lines in Ethiopia. METHODOLOGY: This cross-sectional study evaluated the prevalence and AMR patterns of CNS in dairy farms and abattoirs using samples (n = 1001) from udder milk, beef carcass, personnel, and different abattoir and dairy equipment across five locations of central Oromia. The CNS isolates were identified via standard microbiological protocols and evaluated using disc diffusion test against 14 antimicrobials belonging to nine different broad classes. Uni-and-multivariable logistic regressions were used to analyze the association between potential risk factors (location, sample source, and sample type) and positivity to CNS. RESULTS: The overall prevalence of CNS in the five different geographic locations studied was 9.6% (range: 6.7-12.4%) and varied between abattoirs (11.3%) and dairy farms (8.0%). CNS were prevalent on the carcass, milk, equipment, personnel hands, and nasal samples. Of all CNS isolates, 7.1, 10.7, 7.1, 12.5, 17.9, 10.7, 12.5, 7.1, 1.8, 5.4, 1.8, and 5.4% exhibited AMR simultaneously to single, double, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 13 antimicrobials, respectively. Overall, the isolates displayed 51 different AMR phenotypic patterns in which 50% of the isolates exhibited quadruple-resistance simultaneously based on the nine broad antimicrobial classes tested using 14 representative antimicrobials. The prevalence of multidrug-resistant (MDR) CNS (i.e. ≥ 3 classes of antimicrobials) was significantly (p = 0.037) different between locations with 100, 57.1, 50, 86.7, and 76.9% in Addis Ababa, Adama, Assela, Bishoftu, and Holeta, respectively. However, the prevalence of MDR CNS was not significantly (p = 0.20) different between dairy farms (87.5%) and abattoirs (71.9%). We evaluated the effect of acquiring cefoxitin-resistance of the isolates on the efficacy (i.e. inhibition zone) of the rest antimicrobials using General Linear Model after adjusting geographical locations as a random effect. Isolates with cefoxitin-resistance significantly displayed resistance to eight antimicrobials of 14 tested including amoxicillin, penicillin, cloxacillin, chloramphenicol, nalidixic acid, nitrofurantoin, and tetracycline (p = 0.000), and erythromycin (p = 0.02). On the other hand, cefoxitin-resistant isolates were susceptible to gentamicin, ciprofloxacin, kanamycin, streptomycin, and sulphamethoxazone trimethoprim (p = 0.000). Thus, antimicrobials such as gentamicin and ciprofloxacin may be an alternative therapy to treat cefoxitin-resistant CNS, as 96.4% of CNS isolates were susceptible to these antimicrobials. Overall, 94.1 and 54.5% of the CNS isolates among cefoxitin-resistant and cefoxitin-susceptible, respectively, harbored resistance to 3 or more classes of antimicrobials i.e. MDR. CONCLUSION: The overall prevalence of CNS in milk, meat, equipment, and food handlers in central Oromia was 9.6% but varied by location and sample source. Some specific niches such as equipment, hands, and nasal cavities of personnel are significant sites for the source of CNS. Most, but not all, MDR CNS isolates were cefoxitin-resistant. Overall, 78.6% of the CNS tested were MDR and 50% had resistance to four or more broad classes of antimicrobials. CNS in food animals (raw milk and meat), equipment, and food handlers can be the source of MDR to the public. Personnel safety and hygienic food handling practices are needed. In addition, further investigation into the risk factors for the transmission and mechanisms of resistance of the CNS is required for intervention.

Veterinary medicinal product usage among food animal producers and its health implications in Central Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: Antimicrobials and anthelmintics are the most commonly used veterinary drugs to control animal diseases. However, widespread use of these drugs could contribute to the emergence of drug resistance. Information on the practice of antimicrobial usage among food animal raising communities in Central Ethiopia is scarce. We used a standardised questionnaire survey to assess knowledge, awareness, and practices related to drug use and resistance in food animals among the farmers in and around Bishoftu town. RESULTS: Of the total of 220 livestock owners interviewed, around 80% of the respondents were not able to define what antimicrobials are and for what purposes they are used. Only 14.1% (n = 31) of the respondents had awareness about antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and its consequences; and 35.5% (n = 11/31) and 9.7% (n = 3/31) of them agreed that the irrational use of antimicrobials in animals could lead to AMR in animals and humans. Oxytetracycline was the most commonly available antibiotic in veterinary drug shops/pharmacies and the most widely used drug in the area. However, 43.3% of the respondents did not see clinical improvements after using antibiotics. Similarly, the respondents explained that no response was observed in 73.3, 70.8 and 52.5% of the cases after medication with anthelmintics, antiprotozoal and acaricides, respectively. About 56.7% of the respondents considered traditional medicines equally important to modern medicines. It was also noted that there were illegal drug vendors, dispensing medicines under unfavourable conditions which include a direct exposure to sunlight, which practice violates the drug handling and storage recommendations given by WHO. CONCLUSION: The study revealed that there is a general lack of awareness among food animal owners about the correct use of antibiotics and anthelmintics. The widespread misuse and improper drug dispensing and handling practices observed in this study can affect the drug quality and can also contribute to the development of drug resistance in central Ethiopia.

Risk Perceptions and Protective Behaviors Toward Bovine Tuberculosis Among Abattoir and Butcher Workers in Ethiopia.

Bovine Tuberculosis (BTB) is a serious cause of economic losses and public health threat, especially in developing countries. Humans acquire BTB through consumption of raw or undercooked meat, inhalation of aerosol and occupational exposure. A cross-disciplinary approach to study diseases connecting society and biology helps to understand the ways in which social, cultural, behavioral, and economic circumstances influence a healthy life. The objective of this study was to assess the risk perceptions and protective behaviors toward BTB among abattoir and butcher workers in central Ethiopia. A health belief model was used to generate the desired data following health belief model constructs. A total of 300 meat handlers working in local abattoirs, export abattoirs and butcher houses in Bishoftu, Modjo, Dukem, and Akaki towns of central Ethiopia were selected using a systematic random sampling method. Univariate and multivariable logistic regression analysis were used to assess factors associated with risk of exposure to BTB through the consumption of raw meat. The results showed that among the study participants, 95% heard about BTB and 93% knew that eating raw meat could be a source of BTB for humans. More than 62.7% of the respondents in the high risk group strongly agreed that contracting BTB would prevent them from coming to work, keep them in bed for an extended period of time and cause death. The majority of the respondents believed that free provision of personal protective clothing, compensation with test and slaughter campaigns, television and radio advertisements, educational programs and government-imposed penalties would help in prevention of BTB. Despite the high perceived severity and risk perception, the multivarable logistic regression model showed low-risk protective behavior among male (OR: 2.3, 95% CI: 1.2-4.3) and older age (>30) individuals (OR: 14.4 95% CI: 2.1-125.8). The study also noted the importance of media for health education as means for prevention of BTB. The authors strongly recommended the need of promotion of behavioral change toward the consumption of raw meat wich would have potential implications for the public health impacts of zoonotic tuberculosis and ultimately help national and global efforts toward prevention and control of tuberculosis.

A Smartphone-Based Application Improves the Accuracy, Completeness, and Timeliness of Cattle Disease Reporting and Surveillance in Ethiopia.

Accurate disease reporting, ideally in near real time, is a prerequisite to detecting disease outbreaks and implementing appropriate measures for their control. This study compared the performance of the traditional paper-based approach to animal disease reporting in Ethiopia to one using an application running on smartphones. In the traditional approach, the total number of cases for each disease or syndrome was aggregated by animal species and reported to each administrative level at monthly intervals; while in the case of the smartphone application demographic information, a detailed list of presenting signs, in addition to the putative disease diagnosis were immediately available to all administrative levels via a Cloud-based server. While the smartphone-based approach resulted in much more timely reporting, there were delays due to limited connectivity; these ranged on average from 2 days (in well-connected areas) up to 13 days (in more rural locations). We outline the challenges that would likely be associated with any widespread rollout of a smartphone-based approach such as the one described in this study but demonstrate that in the long run the approach offers significant benefits in terms of timeliness of disease reporting, improved data integrity and greatly improved animal disease surveillance.

Assisting differential clinical diagnosis of cattle diseases using smartphone-based technology in low resource settings: a pilot study.

BACKGROUND: The recent rise in mobile phone use and increased signal coverage has created opportunities for growth of the mobile Health sector in many low resource settings. This pilot study explores the use of a smartphone-based application, VetAfrica-Ethiopia, in assisting diagnosis of cattle diseases. We used a modified Delphi protocol to select important diseases and Bayesian algorithms to estimate the related disease probabilities based on various clinical signs being present in Ethiopian cattle. RESULTS: A total of 928 cases were diagnosed during the study period across three regions of Ethiopia, around 70% of which were covered by diseases included in VetAfrica-Ethiopia. Parasitic Gastroenteritis (26%), Blackleg (8.5%), Fasciolosis (8.4%), Pasteurellosis (7.4%), Colibacillosis (6.4%), Lumpy skin disease (5.5%) and CBPP (5.0%) were the most commonly occurring diseases. The highest (84%) and lowest (30%) levels of matching between diagnoses made by student practitioners and VetAfrica-Ethiopia were for Babesiosis and Pasteurellosis, respectively. Multiple-variable logistic regression analysis indicated that the putative disease indicated, the practitioner involved, and the level of confidence associated with the prediction made by VetAfrica-Ethiopia were major determinants of the likelihood that a diagnostic match would be obtained. CONCLUSIONS: This pilot study demonstrated that the use of such applications can be a valuable means of assisting less experienced animal health professionals in carrying out disease diagnosis which may lead to increased animal productivity through appropriate treatment.

Assessment of Staphylococcus aureus along milk value chain and its public health importance in Sebeta, central Oromia, Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: Staphylococcus aureus is one of the leading causes of gastroenteritis acquired from contaminated foods such as milk and milk products. However, such information is limited in Ethiopia. A cross-sectional study was conducted to assess the contamination of milk with S. aureus and knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAP) of actors along the milk value chain in Sebeta, Central Oromia, Ethiopia. A total of 291 samples collected from dairy farms, milk collection centers (MCCs) and processing plant were examined using standard microbiological techniques. The antimicrobial susceptibility profiles of the isolates were also investigated. The KAP of actors in milk value chain were evaluated through a structured questionnaire. RESULTS: Overall, 23.4% (n = 68) of the samples were positive for S. aureus. The prevalence of S. aureus was 19.6% (95% CI: 14.5-25.6) and 80.0% (95% CI: 14.5-25.6) at farm level and MCCs, respectively. Higher isolation rate was observed in the MCCs (p = 0.000) than the farms. The contamination rates of hands of milkers' and milking buckets with S. aureus were 32% and 11.1%, respectively. S. aureus was not isolated from pasteurized milk samples. The isolates were found to be resistant to cefoxitin (100%), penicillin G (98.5%), and streptomycin (77.9%). Among 23 interviewed farmers, 35% of them consumed raw milk, none of them wash their hands and 82.6% did not wash udder and teat before milking. Six percent of consumers had the habit of raw milk consumption. Eighty seven percent of dairy farmers and 54% of consumers had no awareness about milk borne diseases and staphylococcal food poisoning. CONCLUSIONS: The study revealed a high prevalence of S. aureus along the milk value chain, poor milk handling practices, raw milk consumption behavior, lack of awareness about milk borne diseases and occurrence of antimicrobials resistant S. aureus. S. aureus seems to pose a public health risk in Sebeta. Authors recommended the urgent need of public awareness creation about the importance of hygienic milk production and proper handling and adequate heat treatment of milk before consumption and further study to assess cost-effective preventive and control options.